ath-taking signifies a solemn pledge or appeal to divinity. It has long been a familiar expression of truth, loyalty and moral obligation. Traditionally, an oath was a sacred promise made before God or the gods, invoking divine punishment for falsehood. In ancient societies, to break one’s oath was not merely dishonourable—it was sacrilegious, often equated with perjury against the divine order itself.
Across civilisations, oaths carried deep religious and legal significance, serving as both moral anchors and legal instruments. In Judaism, biblical texts, such as Numbers 30:2 emphasised that “when a man vows a vow unto the Lord, he shall not break his word.” An oath bound the speaker to divine truth, and breaking it was a sin against both God and community.
Among the Romans, citizens swore by Iuppiter Lapis, symbolising Jupiter’s authority as the divine guarantor of justice. Oath-breaking was punishable by the gods and often accompanied by elaborate rituals, such as striking a pig with a sacred stone to invoke divine retribution upon perjurers.
In Hindu tradition, the pratigya or vow held sacred value and was viewed as the essence of honour and dharma. Kings and warriors such as Bhishma and Rama were revered precisely because they upheld their oaths even at great personal loss. To renege on a promise was to lose dharma—the moral law believed to uphold the universe.
In ancient Greece, oaths were considered the moral foundation of political order. Lycurgus declared that “it is the oath which holds democracy together,” reflecting the belief that communal trust and law rested upon truth sworn before the gods. Among Germanic and Norse peoples, oaths were central to warrior and feudal culture. Knights, kings and retainers swore oaths of fealty on swords, sacred boars or rings believed to embody divine presence. Honour was inseparable from one’s sworn word—an oath once broken could destroy reputation, lineage and divine favour.
In Islamic history, oath-taking (yameen or qasam) occupies a central place in personal conduct, lawand governance. The Quran treats oaths with great seriousness, recognising both their spiritual and social implications. As stated in Surah Al-Ma’idah (5:89): “God does not hold you accountable for your unintentional oaths, but He will hold you accountable for the oaths you have sworn in earnest.”
This verse establishes a distinction between casual speech and deliberate vows. A sincere oath binds the believer before God, its violation (nakth al-yameen) requires kaffarah (atonement)—either by feeding or clothing ten poor people, freeing a slaveor fasting for three days.
Historically, oaths were pivotal in Islamic governance and social order. During the Prophet Muhammad’s (peace be upon him) time, the bay‘at—an oath of allegiance—was a solemn covenant between the prophet and his followers, pledging faith, obedience and defence of the Muslim community. The Bay‘at al-Rizwan of 628 CE, sworn under a tree near Hudaybiyah, became a defining moment of collective loyalty in early Islamic history.
Oaths were also used in Islamic jurisprudence to determine truth when evidence was lacking. In cases of dispute, a litigant might swear an oath (yameen al-qasam) to affirm his statement before a qazi (judge). False swearing, known as yameen al-ghamus or “the drowning oath,” was regarded as a grave sin that “plunges its taker into Hell,” according to prophetic traditions.
Throughout the caliphates and sultanates, rulers and officials took oaths of office upon the Quran, invoking divine accountability for justice and governance. Breaking such oaths could lead to deposition, exile or public disgrace. The Islamic understanding of oath-taking thus blended legal force, moral obligation and spiritual accountability—creating a holistic ethical system where speech, faith and action were intertwined.
From sacred vows of antiquity to secular affirmations of modernity, the history of oath-taking charts humanity’s journey from divine accountability to civic responsibility. Once enforced by fear of the gods, today oaths rely on the integrity of individuals.
Oath-taking, though differing in form, has appeared in varied symbolic ways across history, each reflecting the values of its time. In ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt, oaths were sworn before idols or sacred rivers, often with curses pronounced for falsehood. Egyptian judges swore by Pharaoh and Ma’at, the goddess of truth.
In the Greek and Roman worlds, citizens placed hands on sacred stones, sacrifices or altars; the act of swearing by the gods was accompanied by libations or blood rituals. Medieval Europe saw monarchs swearing fealty on relics or the Bible and knights pledging their honour on swords or the cross—breach of which could lead to excommunication.
Among Norse and Germanic tribes, oaths were made over the bragarfull (sacred cup) or upon animal symbols of courage such as the boar, sealing political and martial bonds. In Islamic and Middle Eastern societies, the Quran served as the ultimate symbol of truth. Touching it while swearing heightened the spiritual weight of one’s word. In modern democracies, oaths are now taken on constitutions, flags or simply through verbal affirmations—reflecting the shift from divine to civic accountability.
With the rise of secularism and constitutional governance, the sacred aura surrounding oaths gradually diminished. The Enlightenment replaced divine witness with rational conscience and law replaced religion as the guarantor of truth.
In the United Kingdom, reforms in the 19th Century allowed citizens to make affirmations rather than religious oaths, recognising freedom of conscience. Similarly, the United States Constitution allows both oaths and affirmations, ensuring inclusivity for atheists and the non-religious.
Many European and Commonwealth nations have followed suit, secularising oaths in public life. Today, officials swear loyalty not to monarchs or deities but to constitutions and nations. The meaning of truth thus shifted from divine revelation to civic responsibility—a transformation that mirrors humanity’s moral evolution.
Despite their enduring formality, oaths are often violated in modern political and judicial systems. In nations such as Nigeria, Kenya, India, Pakistan and several Latin American states, many public officials take anti-corruption or constitutional oaths only to later violate them through embezzlement or abuse of office.
In Western democracies, too, perjury and political dishonesty—from the Watergate scandal in the United States to parliamentary controversies in Britain—have eroded public trust in sworn declarations. Historically, oath-breaking invoked divine wrath or communal punishment.
In ancient Rome, perjurers faced the vengeance of the gods; in medieval Christendom, they could lose lands and titles; in Islamic law, they were compelled to seek forgiveness through kaffarah or face eternal damnation. In the modern world, perjury remains a legal offence, but the moral gravity once attached to false swearing has weakened as faith has ceded ground to mere formality.
Yet, even in the modern era, oaths remain central to governance, law, medicine and the military. Judges, doctors, presidents and soldiers continue to swear allegiance or service, though the authority they invoke is now civic rather than divine. The Hippocratic Oath, for instance, has evolved into secular codes of ethics and oaths of office bind public officials to constitutional principles rather than sacred law.
The persistence of oath-taking, even in an age of scepticism, reveals an enduring human need for moral assurance. Whether sworn upon the Quran, a constitution, or one’s own conscience, an oath affirms that truth and duty transcend personal gain and self-interest.
From sacred vows of antiquity to secular affirmations of modernity, the history of oath-taking charts humanity’s journey from divine accountability to civic responsibility. Once enforced by fear of the gods, today oaths rely on the integrity of individuals and the moral authority of institutions. While oath violations have become more frequent in political and legal arenas, the ritual endures because it embodies a timeless ideal—that truth, loyalty and justice depend upon the sanctity of one’s word.
The writer is a professor in the Faculty of Liberal Arts at the Beaconhouse National University, Lahore